Cooperation, care and human success - from the Stone Age to today

---

The Stone Age

Stone Age people survived not because they were the strongest or fastest, but because they could cooperate and care for each other in unlimited numbers. Researchers have found graves that show that even people with disabilities were cared for and buried with respect. This tells us that society depended on everyone helping and taking care of each other.

Boken The Dawn of Everything of i.a. David Graeber tells us that Stone Age people had many different ways of living. Sometimes they chose to live together in large groups without a chief or king, and sometimes they changed leadership depending on the season. Their way of life was not "primitive", as we sometimes think. Instead, it was very flexible and creative.

Graeber also shows that Stone Age societies could build cities and create rules without always having a hierarchy, that is, without some people being much more powerful than others. They learned to cultivate and spread agriculture slowly over thousands of years, but they also retained their cooperation and care.

In short, the Stone Age was a time when people found smart and friendly ways to live together. They showed that we become strong by taking care of each other and thinking together about how we want to live.

 

---

The rise of agriculture: A hard life for many

About 10 years ago, humans began to cultivate the earth, but it was not a quick or easy change. According to The Dawn of Everything the transition from gathering and hunting to agriculture happened slowly, over thousands of years. People tried different ways of living, and agriculture did not immediately become the only model. Many societies combined farming with hunting and gathering, and some abandoned agriculture when it did not work.

There is an old idea that agriculture created hierarchical societies where a few took power and forced others to work hard. But Graeber and Wengrow show that this was not always the case. Many early agricultural societies were decentralized and had a more even distribution of power and resources. They built cities without rulers and created solutions where people cooperated.

At the same time, there were examples of societies where power and wealth were concentrated in the elite. But to describe agriculture as a direct cause of injustice and oppression is too simple. Instead, the research shows that different societies made different choices, and that agriculture both provided new opportunities and created challenges.

 

---

Ancient Civilizations: Fiat Currency and Financial Wisdom

In ancient Babylon, Israel and China were used fiat currency. It is money that gets its value because the government says it has value, not because it is made of gold or silver. These societies also understood the danger of interest – that debt could grow unchecked and destroy the economy. In Israel, a year of jubilee was introduced, a rule which meant that all debts were written off at regular intervals to prevent debt slavery and economic collapse. These systems helped societies create stability and long-term growth.

The high cultures of the Middle East were probably the first to create hereditary hierarchies, where power and resources were inherited within specific groups. In other parts of the world, people could switch positions between superior and inferior depending on the season or other circumstances, showing that societal models could be more flexible than we often think.

 

---

The Roman Empire: Technology and Economic Mistakes

The Roman Empire began by using fiat currency but later switched to a strict one gold standard, where money could only be issued if it had an equivalent amount of gold in reserve. This limited the amount of money available in society, leading to economic crises. Rome had access to technological innovations such as steam engines, but these were mostly used as toys to bolster the emperor's divine status. Slave labor meant that no need was seen to develop the technology.

However, the Roman Empire introduced a radically harsh view of private property. You were not only allowed to own something absolutely, but also to destroy it – including people who were considered property, such as slaves. This view of property contributed to a historically extreme concentration of power and reinforced social divisions.

When Rome fell, Europe lost its centralized state power and its state money production. This led to a long period of economic stagnation and technological stagnation, although some progress was made where resources temporarily existed.

 

---

The Middle Ages: A society without a strong state

After the fall of the Roman Empire, there were no strong states left. Instead, power was divided between different elite collective, as noblemen and their retinues. These groups settled legal disputes and political issues through violence or the threat of violence. The ruler was the individual with the most alliances with different relatives from different families and different friends. It was a kind of anarcho-capitalism – similar to today's neoliberalism – where the strong did as they pleased without a state that could protect the weak.

In the late Middle Ages, states again began to take control. Merchants and Templars introduced early versions of today's banking system by lending money and issuing promissory notes that were not always backed by gold. This laid the foundation for the economic growth that later came. The Middle Ages became over time dynamic and brighter. Universities arose, new technologies for farming and riding horses came. Armies came under state rather than warlord control. Culture was developed.

---

England and the role of fiat currency in industrialization

In the 1600th century, England reintroduced fiat currency, making it possible to finance large projects such as roads and canals. This, along with political reforms that encouraged education and innovation, led to the Industrial Revolution. England became an economic power and an example for the rest of the world.

I How Rich Countries Got Rich ... and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor Reinert shows how Europe, from the 1300th century onwards, built its success on technology, diversified production and state support. Governments protected industries with tariffs and subsidies, while cities like Florence became centers of trade and innovation. Europe invested in refining raw materials instead of exporting them, which created wealth and jobs.

This model enabled the industrial revolution and Europe's global dominance via colonialism. Reinert criticizes neoliberalism's free trade, which prevents developing countries from following the same strategy. He believes that poor countries need to protect their industries in order to break their dependence on raw materials and build a sustainable economy.

 

---

1780–1920: Explosive growth

The industrial revolution meant a dramatic increase in productivity. Innovations such as steam engines, railways and factories fundamentally changed society. Economies grew at an unprecedented rate. Despite this, many of the profits went to a small elite, while the workers fought for better rights.

The causes of industrialization

The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 1700th century, was a time when machines and factories changed the way people worked and lived. But to understand why the Industrial Revolution was able to begin, we need to look at what happened in the countryside before that. The agricultural reforms, or the agrarian revolution, played a decisive role.

The one shift and the enclosure movement

In the past, agriculture in Britain was inefficient. The land was divided into small strips, called tegar, which each farmer cultivated. Farmers needed to cooperate on when and how to farm the land, which often led to conflict and inefficiency. In the 1500th century, the teak lands began to be merged into larger contiguous fields. These changes, which became more common in the 1700th century, are called probate reforms. In England this happened through the one-shift and enclosure movement, where large landowners took control of land that had previously been used in common.

Greater food production

These reforms had two important effects. First, larger fields made it possible to use new agricultural methods, such as crop rotation and more efficient implements. This increased food production, allowing the population to grow. Second, many small farmers were forced off their land and became landless. They therefore needed to find other ways to support themselves, and many moved to the cities to work in the factories.

Natural resources a prerequisite

Britain's natural resources were also important. The country had plenty of iron and coal, which became necessary resources to build machines and run them with steam power. In addition, Britain had a stable political system and a strong trade network, which provided opportunities for investment in new industries. The growing trade, both within the country and with the colonies, also created a greater demand for goods such as clothing, which fueled the development of the textile industry.

The agrarian revolution and population growth thus provided both labor and raw materials needed to start the industrial revolution. As agriculture became more efficient and more people moved to the cities, there were both people who could work in factories and a market for the goods the factories produced. This enabled Britain to become the world's first industrialized nation.

The industrial revolution

The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1700th century and changed the way people lived and worked. It was a transition from an agricultural society where many worked on farms to an industrial society where machines began to be used in factories. First of all, it affected the textile industry, where new inventions such as the Spinning Jenny and mechanical looms made it possible to produce clothes much faster and cheaper than before.

The steam engine crucial

One of the most important inventions was the steam engine, which made factories and transportation more efficient. With the steam engine, you could pump water out of mines, run factories and later also create steam locomotives and steamboats. This made it easier to move goods and people, opening up new opportunities for trade and industry.

People moved from the countryside to the cities to work in factories, which is called urbanization. In the cities, factories grew, and mass production meant that more people could buy goods at lower prices. But there were also problems. Many worked long hours in poor working conditions with low pay. Children and women were often given the heaviest jobs because they could be paid even less than men. Overcrowding and disease were also common in the rapidly growing cities.

Hard work, poverty and social problems

The industrial revolution had both positive and negative sides. On the positive side, more goods were created, technology developed, and new jobs arose. On the negative side, many suffered from hard work, poverty and social problems. This led to the formation of unions to fight for better working conditions, and later political movements began to work for more justice in society.

The revolution spread from Great Britain to other parts of the world, first to Europe and North America, and later to the rest of the world. It became a basis for today's modern society, with cities, factories and technological development. Despite the difficult challenges, the industrial revolution has shaped the world we live in today and shown how innovation can change both work and life.

French Revolution and Industrialism

The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a struggle against an unjust social system, l'ancien régime, where the nobility and clergy had privileges while the commoners bore the heaviest tax burden. The revolution was marked by hunger, stunted growth and economic crisis. The Industrial Revolution, which had already begun in England, met with opposition from the French King Louis XVI and the old system.

The revolution meant a break from feudal structures. Many burghers and some nobles supported industrialization because they saw economic opportunities in abolishing the privileges. The French Revolution pushed reforms that promoted equality, freedom, and industrialization. Napoleon's wars of conquest spread modern ideas, such as the metric system and new laws, which accelerated social change.

The American Civil War and the role of industrialism

The American Civil War (1861–1865) was more than a fight over slavery. It was also an economic battle between the slave-dependent agriculture of the South and the growing industrialism of the North. The war began after Abraham Lincoln was elected president and the Confederate States seceded from the Union.

To finance the war, Lincoln introduced the paper currency "greenbacks," freeing the economy from the gold standard. The industrial capacity of the Northern states, with factories, railways and the telegraph, played a decisive role in defeating the Southern states. The war demonstrated how the state could coordinate economic resources for public good purposes, an early precursor to ideas such as Modern Monetary Theory.

The Civil War resulted in the abolition of slavery and a stronger federal state. The economy of the Northern states continued to grow thanks to immigration and industrialization, while the Southern states suffered economic and cultural decline. The war demonstrated the importance of government governance and economic planning in times of crisis.

---

Colonialism and the ideas behind it Living Space

Colonialism and the ideas behind it Living Space (ie. living space) are very similar. Lebensraum was the Nazis' dream of a Germany that was supported by conquered countries especially in Eastern Europe. Both colonialism and Lebensraum are about power and control and are justified by claiming that land in other countries is not being used properly. The colonizers and those who advocated Living Space claimed that they would "improve" and "civilize" the areas they took over. But in reality, their actions often led to the destruction of societies and damage to nature.

Colonialism was also based on racism, but the Nazis took it to an extreme level. Sven Lindqvist describes in Exterminate every single bastard how Western colonialism already in the 1800th century normalized the idea that certain ethnic groups could be annihilated to make way for "civilization". Almost every journalistic article in the Western world's newspapers about the colonies often concluded with suggestions to "exterminate every bastard" as a solution to problems with indigenous peoples.

The Nazis developed these ideas

The Nazis developed these ideas further. Their genocide was based on a systematic and industrial extermination of groups they considered inferior, especially Jews, Roma and Slavic peoples. According to Jewish historian Norman Finkelstein The Nazi genocide was described as unique after World War II, which served several purposes. It helped other countries avoid taking responsibility for their own genocides, for example of indigenous peoples during colonialism. At the same time, it was used to justify Israel's expansion into Palestine, citing the unique suffering the Jews had undergone.

In this way, both colonialism and Nazism's ideas of supremacy and racism were tools for oppression and exploitation. These systems were based on the same basic principles: violence, contempt for human life, and a willingness to take what was deemed desirable without regard for others.

---

Progressive Indians of North America: Inspiration for the Enlightenment

The progressive societies of some North American indigenous peoples, such as the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy), had democratic systems that inspired Enlightenment ideas of equality, freedom, and socialism in Europe. Their respect for the strength of the collective and the rights of the individual laid a moral foundation for many of the social advances in the West.

The rise of total wars, austerity policies and right-wing extremism

What is total war?

Total war arose in the 1800th century. This means that the whole society is mobilized to support the war effort. The border between soldiers and civilians disappears, and the state takes full control of resources, production and propaganda. Stig Förster identifies four basic aspects of total war:

1. Overall purpose: Complete dominance and power is the goal.
2. Total Methods: Brutal strategies and mass destruction are used.
3. Total mobilization: The whole population, including women and children, is involved.
4. Total control: The state controls the economy, culture and information.

Tiziano Peccia adds a fifth dimension: total change, which emphasizes the long-term effects on society, politics and economics. Examples of total wars are the Napoleonic Wars, World War I and World War II, where strategic bombing, mass mobilization and propaganda campaigns were central elements.

The total war and the state

During total war, the state greatly expanded its role. To finance the war effort, many countries used fiat currencies and central planning. The state directed production, rationed resources and used propaganda to maintain control over the population. The war also created social changes, such as greater equality through universal conscription and opportunities for women to take a place in working life.

Summary

Total war reshaped societies by mobilizing their entire resources.

 

---

1920–1970: A Golden Age of Welfare and Justice

After World War I and the Great Depression, states began to invest in their citizens. This was a time of rapid economic growth, social justice and technological progress.

• Keynesian economics: The state ran a deficit to create jobs and welfare.
• New Deal in the US: A major reform program that lifted millions out of poverty.
• Sweden and Europe: Social democratic welfare states created a safe and fair society with a high standard of living.
• Soviet Union: Despite its authoritarian system, the Soviet Union made technological advances that lifted the country from Tsarist Russia's backward agrarian society to a global superpower.

---

The First and Second World Wars: Causes, Consequences and the Struggle of Ideologies

---

The First World War (1914–1918): Causes and Consequences

Reasons:

1. Race between great powers:
   • The great powers of Europe such as Great Britain, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary competed for colonies and economic power.
   • Nationalism (strong belief in the superiority of one's own country) and imperialism (the desire to control other countries) led to tensions.
2. Military alliances:
   • Countries formed alliances to protect themselves, but this allowed a conflict to quickly spread.
   • An assassination of Austria-Hungary's heir to the throne in Sarajevo started a chain reaction that led to war.
3. Economic tensions:
   • Industrialization had made some countries very rich and powerful, while others felt threatened by this development.

Consequences:

• Millions dead: The war claimed around 20 million lives and destroyed large parts of Europe.
• Economic Collapse: Many countries went into debt to finance the war.
• Revolutions: Dissatisfaction with the war and poverty led to revolutions, especially in Russia, where the Tsar was overthrown and the Soviet Union was formed.

---

The Interwar Period (1919–1939): Ideologies in conflict

After World War I, the world was unstable, and different ideologies fought for power:

1. Social democracy and social liberalism:
   • Advocated democracy, human rights and economic reforms such as better working conditions and welfare.
   • Was inspired and driven under some duress by popular movements such as trade unions and women's movements, which fought for justice. These popular movements crushed neoliberalism.
2. Communism:
   • In the Soviet Union, the communists tried to create a society without private owners of businesses and agriculture.
   • They made great technological advances, but the system was authoritarian and persecuted dissenters. Nazism, however, was an even more inhumane system.
3. Nazism and Fascism:
   • These far-right ideologies originated in Germany and Italy and used violence, nationalism and racism to create a strong state.
   • Nazism used propaganda and government investment to create jobs and build military power.
4. Keynesian economics:
   • John Maynard Keynes proposed that the government should invest in jobs and infrastructure during crises to strengthen the economy. This became a model for many democracies.

5.  Austerity policy/neoliberalism

   Clara E. Matei sees the emergence of austerity policies after the total wars as a reaction from the economic elite. During the wars, the state gained great power to regulate the economy and introduce welfare systems, which challenged the dominance of the capital owners. After the wars, the elite sought to regain control by:

   Limit the state's role in the economy.
   Reduce the welfare rights of the working class.
   Re-introduce market governance and privatisation.

   Matei argues that neoliberalism and austerity policies are tools to limit the progress won by the working class during the total wars. The state is forced to prioritize budget balance and privatization, which benefits capital owners at the expense of equality and social stability.

   Link to right-wing extremism

   After the total wars and during the rise of austerity, far-right movements exploited the war's nationalism and state control to legitimize authoritarian solutions. For example, Nazism used the idea of ​​total war to combine military force with a totalitarian state. Exploiting economic crises and social unrest, far-right forces created a rhetoric that emphasized order and hierarchy over freedom and equality.

   Clara E. Matei's analysis shows that the austerity policies that came after the wars are bourgeois revenge against the social and economic progress that the state made possible. At the same time, these wars gave rise to right-wing extremism's exploitation of nationalism and authoritarian control. This historical connection highlights the importance of understanding total war as a catalyst for both social development and reactionary politics.

---

The Second World War (1939–1945): Causes and Consequences

Reasons:

1. Treaty of Versailles:
   • After World War I, Germany received harsh peace terms, which created poverty and discontent.
   • Hitler used this to gain support for Nazism.
2. Nazi Aggression:
   • Germany began to invade neighboring countries to create a "Greater Germany".
   • Germany's ideas about a Lebensraum built on the West's ideas about and claim of right to colonialism
   • World War II began when Germany invaded Poland and Great Britain and France declared war.
3. Financial problems:
   • The Great Depression of the 1930s caused many people to turn to extreme political solutions, such as Nazism and Communism. Those who created the austerity policies after World War I wanted to recreate the class divisions that total war had obliterated. The creators of austerity policies understood the risks of right-wing extremism such as Nazism and fascism that right-wing economics could fuel.
4. Winner Total wars like World War I and World War II are won by the countries with the best productive power. World War II was won by the Soviet Union. The West took D-Day in order not to lose all of Western Europe to the Soviets.

Consequences:

• Millions dead: About 70 million people died, including 6 million Jews in the Holocaust.
• Victory of the Soviet Union: The Soviet Union played the decisive role in defeating Nazi Germany, especially at the Battle of Stalingrad and Berlin.
• The Reshaping of the World:
  • The United States and the Soviet Union became the two superpowers.
  • The UN was created to prevent more world wars.
  • Colonies began to demand independence.

---

Popular movements and their importance

After World War II, popular movements such as trade unions, women's movements and civil rights movements grew. These fought for democracy, equality and social justice. They pressured parties, especially social democrats, to create better working conditions, welfare systems and rights for all.

---

The Golden Age of Keynesianism (1945–1970)

After the war, welfare states were built up in Europe and North America. Keynesian economics, which involved the government investing in jobs, education and health, created:

• High productivity: Economies grew faster than ever before.
• Social Justice: More people gained access to school, healthcare and pensions.
• Democracy and stability: Workers' rights were strengthened, and the middle class grew.

The rise and change of industrialism

During the heyday of industrialism big corporations created the mass consumer society. Companies like Singer and Standard Oil used new technologies for mass production and lowered prices so more people could buy their products. Mass production made goods cheap and at the same time very profitable for the companies. It was the companies that first adapted to this model that dominated the market for a long time.

The big companies were often run by professional directors who prioritized the company's success over personal gain. This differed from entrepreneurs such as Henry Ford, where the focus was more on personal ownership than on efficiency.

Despite the successes, industrialism had downsides. The companies became like a new nobility with great influence over politics, which often led to social rules being adapted to their needs. Industrialization also contributed to major environmental problems through mass production and the use of harmful materials.

Transition to finance capitalism: Two perspectives on the change

In the 1960s, industrial companies became so efficient that they produced more than could be sold. This led to an overproduction crisis, exacerbated by the high oil prices of the 1970s. To deal with this, many companies began to sell off their core businesses and outsource production to other countries. Technicians and engineers were replaced by economists who prioritized short-term profit over long-term development. Companies became more dependent on financial markets, where investors focused on quick returns. This laid the foundation for today's financial capitalism, where speculation is often more profitable than production.

At the same time, there was a different view of what shaped economic development. In the 1970s, the Nixon administration's decision to detach the dollar from the gold standard, called Nixon Shock, a global currency crisis. This destabilized trade and industry worldwide. For Sweden, this meant that large industries such as the shipbuilding and technical industries were eliminated when production moved to low-wage countries.

Inflation and the currency crisis were often blamed on welfare, even though the reason mainly lay in the global economic changes. Sven Grassman, a Swedish economist, showed that higher oil prices and currency changes were rather behind the crises. However, his research was ignored, and welfare became the scapegoat. This created a narrative that the welfare state was unsustainable, leading to cuts and privatizations in the 1980s and 1990s.

The two perspectives show that both the internal dynamics of industrial companies and global macroeconomic changes contributed to the transition from industrial capitalism to financial capitalism. At the same time, welfare lost its role as an engine for equality and economic stability, paving the way for increased gaps and a speculation-driven economy.

 

The way ahead

In order to break the negative effects of finance capitalism, it is proposed to reduce the financial sector's influence over the business world and instead strengthen actors who protect production and long-term development. Industrialization showed that production and innovation can create prosperity, but for this to work, a sustainable balance between companies, society and the environment is required.

---

The Rise of Neoliberalism (1970–2025): A Step Back

Why was Keynesianism replaced?

In the 1970s, the economy began to slow down due to oil crises and overproduction. The rich wanted back a system where their profits were not threatened by higher wages and taxes. The focus of neoliberalism became:

• Privatizations: The state sold out welfare and companies.
• Austerity: Cuts in public spending, which weakened welfare.
• Lower wages: Workers got a smaller share of the profits.

Consequences of neoliberalism:

• Increased inequality: The rich got richer, while the middle class and the poor got worse.
• Reduced democracy: Popular movements weakened, and politics was increasingly controlled by money and lobbying.
• Environmental destruction: The companies' short-term profits were prioritized over sustainable development.
• Globalization: Production was moved to low-wage countries, which weakened the economies of the West.

---

The ideologies' view of democracy and human rights

1. Social democracy and social liberalism:
   • Stands for democracy, human rights and fair working conditions.
   • Based on the idea that the state should protect the weakest and give everyone equal opportunities.
2. Communism:
   • Wants to eliminate economic gaps, but often sacrificed democracy and human rights to achieve their goals.
3. Nazism and Fascism:
   • Rejected democracy and human rights. Used violence and oppression to rule.
4. Neoliberalism:
   • Prioritizes the freedom of the market over the freedom of the individual. Has led to reduced equality and weakened democracy.

---

 

1970–2025: The negative effects of neoliberalism

After the 1970s, neoliberalism began to dominate. This ideology favors the wealthy at the expense of the rest of society.

• The Transformation of Industrial Capitalism: When industry became too efficient to meet demand, companies shifted their focus from production to speculation in stocks and real estate.
• Global Outsourcing: Companies moved production to low-wage countries, undermining the West's economic position.
• Environmental destruction and inequality: Lack of regulation has led to climate crises and widening gaps between rich and poor

 

Sconclusion: Solidarity and state governance as a recipe for success

History shows that societies flourish when the state regulates the economy, invests in education and welfare, and protects its citizens. Welfare and progressive values ​​create innovation and economic growth. By learning from this, we can build a future where sustainability, justice and freedom go hand in hand. To meet the challenges of the future, we need to return to one global model based on justice, sustainability and democracy.